Basic Principles of Motor Learning and Skill Acquisition

What is Skill Acquisition?

Skill acquisition, also referred to as motor learning and control is the interdisciplinary science of intention, perception, action, and calibration of the performer-environment relationship. In particular, skill acquisition is an umbrella term specific to the knowledge of and knowledge about what behavioural and neurological variables influence central nervous system adaptation in response to the learning or re-learning of a motor skill [5]. In simplified terms, skill acquisition refers to voluntary control over movements of joints and body segments in an effort to solve a motor skill problem and achieve a task goal.

Why is Skill Acquisition Important?

The study of motor learning and control is a comprehensive approach to understanding human movement outside traditional biomechanical interventions. As an interdisciplinary science, skill acquisition engages experts in neuroscience, physiology, psychology, biomechanics, and coaching, as an avenue to research how the neuromuscular system functions to activate and coordinate the muscles and limbs involved in the performance of a motor skill.

While there are many different theories surrounding skill acquisition and the practical tools used to improve it, there is still a considerable lack of knowledge which details exactly what is acquired during skill acquisition and which practices are best in order to develop these skills.

Fitts and Posner - Stages of motor learning

In the late 1900's, Fitts and Posner [3] developed a three-stage continuum of practice model.

• Stage 1: Cognitive Stage
• Stage 2: Associative Stage
• Stage 3: Autonomous Stage

The first stage was called the 'cognitive stage', where the beginner primarily focuses on what to do and how to do it. To put this into context, a volleyball player might ask "how high should my serve toss be?" for example. The learner closely pays attention as he or she receives feedback from the coach. This stage is usually filled with numerous errors, large gains, and lack of consistency. The coach plays a crucial role in walking the fine line of feedback being a cognitive task and not a mechanical intervention. Another name for this stage is the verbal-motor stage.The second stage in this model is known as the 'associative stage', where after an unspecified amount of practice, performance starts to improve. The person is now associating specific cues to solving the motor problem he or she is facing. Smaller errors and better consistency is shown because the basic fundamentals have been established and are now being refined. Naturally, performance variability will decrease here. The learner expends a lot of conscious effort here, often times focusing primarily on body movements. Another name for this stage is the motor stage.

The third stage in this model is the 'autonomous stage', where the skill has become automatic. There is little to no conscious thought and the learner can often do another task at the same time, such as hold a conversation. Self-learning becomes huge here because skilled performers can detect their own errors and make the proper adjustments.

Author & Reference LINK: https://www.scienceforsport.com/skill-acquisition/ By Harjiv Singh

STAGES OF LEARNING A NEW SKILL:

Motor learning, in terms of skill acquisition, is concerned with two primary concepts: RETENTION and TRANSFER. 

Retention is the ability to retain the skill performance after a period of no practice. In sports, we look at day to day for retention: Do your players retain the information or the learning from one practice to the next or is every practice like starting from scratch? 

Transfer is the ability to take a skill learned in one setting and execute the skill in a different setting. In sports, we discuss the transfer from practice to a game. If a player shoots 92% in practice, and 92% in the game, there is perfect transfer. If a player shoots 92% in practice and 60% in the game, there is little transfer. Without transfer, there is no learning. 

Describe the Phases (stages) of Learning

The cognitive stage of learning is the first stage in learning a new sport. Within the cognitive stage of learning, athletes are often young or new to the sport. A coach teaches primarily through demonstrating and visual learning, effecting the concept of Bandura's Social Learning Theory. By watching skills, the athletes in the cognitive stage of learning then practice. They learn by trial and error at this stage and are expected to make many errors. In order to combat these and teach the performers, there is a large emphasis on feedback from the coach.

The feedback must be extrinsic as the performers do not have the knowledge or muscle memory to know if the skill is done correctly. In this stage, the feedback is primarily knowledge of results. 

After the performer succeeds more frequently, they will move into the associative stage of learning.  

PHASES OF MOVEMENT

Every movement skill can be broken down into four main components: preparation/preliminary movement, force production, critical instant and the recovery/follow-through. These are called the phases of movement. Before even reading about the phases, see if you can complete the activity below which includes images and descriptions of the phases.

A sport movement, especially for ballistic actions such as hitting, throwing and kicking, generally contain three main phases:

1. Preparation
2. Execution
3. Follow-through

PREPARATION:

In the preparation phase(sometimes called the wind-up phase, countermovement phase, or pre-stretch phase), the segments are sequentially rotated in the direction opposite to the motion they'll undergo when generating the external impulse. 

The individual segments move "backward" in a sequence, beginning with the larger segments closer to the trunk (proximal segments) and continuing to the smaller segments farther from the trunk (distal segments).The preparation phase elongates muscle and prepares it to produce the muscle force to accelerate body segments during movement. A high level of both active and passive muscle force develops in the elongating muscles during this phase

EXECUTION:

In the execution phase(sometimes called the propulsion phase or acceleration phase), the individual body segments are rotated in the direction needed to generate the external impulse on the body. 

The segments move "forward" during the execution phase, and the distal segment pushes or pulls to produce an external impulse. The execution phase is when muscles use the active and passive muscle force enhanced during the preparation phase to accelerate body segments to apply the point of contact or release of the movement.

FOLLOW THROUGH:

In the follow through phase (sometimes called the deceleration phase) his/her body movements after the execution phase. This phase is where the movement slows down after impact and the player prepares for the next action. 

The follow-through is important in slowing the body parts down over a longer period of time, absorbing the forces produced and helping to prevent injuries.

ROLE & USE OF FEEDBACK

Internal (intrinsic) feedback

• visual
• haptic (touch/feel)

External (extrinsic) feedback

• feedback mode
• verbal
• auditory
• visual
• tactile

Feedback content

• "knowledge of performance" (KP)
• "knowledge of results" (KR)
• feedback schedule

5 Steps in Improving Skill Performance

Step 1: Observe the complete skill

Step 2: Analyze each phase of the skill (preparation, execution, follow-through)

Step 3: Use your knowledge of mechanics in your analysis

Step 4: Select the errors to be corrected

Step 5: Decide on the appropriate methods for the correcting errors

PHYSICAL LITERACY

What is Physical Literacy?

"Physical literacy is the motivation, confidence, physical competence, knowledge, and understanding to value and take responsibility for engagement in physical activities for life."

Motivation and Confidence (Affective)

Motivation and confidence refers to an individual's enthusiasm for, enjoyment of, and self-assurance in adopting physical activity as an integral part of life.

Physical Competence (Physical)

Physical competence refers to an individual's ability to develop movement skills and patterns, and the capacity to experience a variety of movement intensities and duration's. Enhanced physical competence enables an individual to participate in a wide range of physical activities and settings.

Knowledge and Understanding (Cognitive)

Knowledge and understanding includes the ability to identify and express the essential qualities that influence movement, understand the health benefits of an active lifestyle, and appreciate appropriate safety features associated with physical activity in a variety of settings and physical environments.

INSTRUCTOR/COACH

The coach will need to be able to: assist athletes to prepare training programs, communicate effectively with athletes, assist athletes to develop new skills, use evaluation tests to monitor training progress and predict performance.

While every coach is unique, most common coaching styles fall into one of four major categories: democratic, autocratic, laissez-faire, and holistic.