Skill in Sport

Consider two very different skills in your own sports. How would you describe the characteristics of the skill? 

Share with a Neighbour...

There is a broad range of sporting activities, each requiring a set of skills, or SPECIFIC SKILL SET. 

Skills have many characteristics that can change in different situations, making classifying them difficult. Accepting that skills cannot be neatly labelled, we place them on a continuum. 

Skill classification systems are based on the view that motor skills are affected by three factors:

• how precise a movement is
• whether the movement has a definite beginning and end
• whether the environment affects the performance of the skill

What is "skill"? 

The term "skill" can either be used to describe a specific action or the level of performance of an individual. Skill infers that the movement has been learned and has a predetermined outcome or goal. It is not an action that a person can just naturally do; neither is it moving for the sake of moving. 

The main characteristics of skills, therefore, are the following:  

• They are goal oriented, using the skill will achieve an end result. For example, typing a letter, putting a golf ball in the hole or making a save in soccer. 
• They meet the performance goal with maximum certainty. For example, maintaining balance while riding a bike or making 90% of shots in a basketball game.
• They meet the performance goal with minimum outlay of energy. For example, steering a car, staying streamlined in the water during a freestyle race or skiing parallel down the slope. 
• They are learned through practice. They require some experience, repetition or feedback from a teacher or coach. 

Types of Skills 

There are many different types of skills and they vary according to the different motor, cognitive, perceptual and perceptual-motor demands placed on the performer. 

Motor Skill Weightlifting, for example, is mostly a motor skill because it emphasizes movement and does not require much thinking. Other examples include sprint racing and wrestling. 

Cognitive Skill Playing chess requires mostly cognitive skill because it requires lots of thinking. Success in chess is not associated with the execution of the movements. In games such as soccer and field hockey, knowledge of the rules, game objectives and team tactics are cognitive in nature, and are associated with the decision-making element of game play. 

Perceptual Skill Reading the green in golf is a perceptual skill. The golfer receives information about the type of surface, the run of the green, the distance of the ball from the hole, and other environmental conditions through their perceptual senses. This enables golfers to make a decision about how to make the putt. Perceptual senses include vision, vestibular (senses that help you with balance closely related to your hearing), haptic (touch) and auditory. Another example would be in rock climbing when a rock climber assesses the rock face before a climb. 

Perceptual-motor Skills These skills involve the interpretation of environmental stimuli and the motor response to this sensory information. Perceptual-motor skills depend on high perceptual ability and are very important in activities that require the performer to adapt to the environment. Another example would be dribbling with the ball in soccer to beat a defender. It is important to note that most sports involve perceptual-motor skills because they involve thought, interpretation and movement.

Outline the different approaches to classifying motor skills

1. Gross - Fine
2. Open - Closed
3. Massed - Distributed 
4. Discrete - Serial - Continuous
5. Externally paced - Self/Internally paced
6. Individual - Coactive - Interactive
7. Simple - Complex
8. Low - High Organization
   
9. Variable - Fixed

Gross - Fine

• Gross: large movements using large muscles or involving whole muscle groups; movements such as rolling over, kicking, flipping
• Fine: small and intricate movements, using small muscles often at the extremities; such as fingers, toes, wrists and tongues

Open - Closed

• Open: a skill performed in an unstable environment, where the environmental stimuli determines the initiation of the movement
• Closed: performed in a stationary environment, and it highly controlled by the individual, who dictates the initiation. Often easier.

Massed- Distributed

• Massed: large amounts of practice in less time (CRAMMING) is when no rest intervals are given between each component of the training session. It is used when a coach wants to promote a high level of fitness. 

Example: A coach putting a team of footballers through a 1 hour fitness session none stop. Players should be able to cope with 45 minute halves. 

• Distributed: small amounts of practice with more time (SPACING) is when a rest interval is given to allow recuperation. Feedback, coaching and advice on technique can be given during the interval. 

It is suitable for: 

• Beginners, who can focus on the next part of the skill during the break
• Learning a new skill
• Performers who are unfit
• Performers who need encouragement from the coach to improve motivation

Distributed practice involves athletes practicing something over several sessions spaced out over time. This is quite different to massed practice, where the practice occurs in one intensive block. 

Discrete - Serial - Continuous

• Discrete: brief and defined actions that have a definitive start and end to their movement. Single, specific actions; such as a penalty kick
• Serial: a sequence of discrete skills joined together to create a greater movement, such as a triple jump
• Continuous: has no obvious beginning or end, actions are repeated in a cyclical form, such as running, can be stopped throughout the performance

Can you name a skill and where would they fit on the continuum? 

Externally paced - Self or Internally paced

• Internally paced: performer dictates the rate of speed that the skills are performed, often comprise of closed skills (javelin throw)

• Externally paced: the environment (including opponents) control the pace at which the skill is executed, these factors will affect the performance and must be taken into account by the performer. Typically open skills.

Individual - Coactive - Interactive

• Individual: skills performed in isolation, like a high jump
• Coactive: skills that may be performed in unison with other competitors, but do not involve direct confrontation or contact, eg. swimming
• Interactive: skills performed where others are directly involved, such as game sports like rugby or football 

Simple - Complex skills

• A simple skill is a straightforward one, requires little concentration and cognitive ability.
• A complex skill involves a large attention span because they are complicated and repeatedly practiced to make it easier to perform in competition.

Low - High Organization

• A low organization skill is easy and uncomplicated like riding a bike. The phases that make up the skill are usually discrete and might be practiced separately to make your technique better.
• A high organization skill has a complex number of phases involved which cannot be broken down and practiced separately, as they are linked closely together. They require large amounts of attention.

Variable and Fixed 

A major factor influencing the development of a skill is the practice of which there are two main types:

• Variable - practicing a skill in a various contexts and experiencing the full range of situations in which the technique or tactic might be used in competition. The skill is applied to many different environments in practice, allowing the development of the skill and the ability to adapt the skill to a range of possible situations. This is vital for open and interactive skills.
• Fixed - a specific movement is practiced repeatedly, often referred to as a drill. This type of practice is ideal for skills that are always performed in the same way. Closed, interactive and coactive skills require fixed practice to allow the motor sequence to be perfected.

 
Perceptual Abilities
Way in which we notice significant things that are happening around us and how quickly and effectively we make decisions about how to deal with them.
For example it is the way in which:

1. You make sense of the information you receive from the environment ie. to perceive it, interpret it and identify elements in it which are important, for eg. whether the ball is spinning or not, what the flight path of the shuttle is, whether there is a gap in the defense which can be exploited.
2. Recognition and interpretation relies on previous experience and memory of that experience.
3. Decision making decide what to do - muscles then need to carry out the required movement.

Motor abilities (movement and performance)
Personal characteristics or enduring traits which, affect an individuals output

Perceptual-motor or Psychomotor abilities - a combination of perceptual and motor abilities
Capability to process, interpret and use sensory stimuli for performing a task .

Distinguish between Fleishman's physical proficiency abilities (physical factors) and perceptual motor abilities (psychomotor factors)Fleishman's Physical Proficiency (Gross Motor)Abilities - Health related

• Extent flexibility
• Dynamic flexibility
• Explosive strength
• Static strength
• Dynamic strength
• Trunk strength
• Gross body co-ordination
• Gross body equilibrium
• Stamina

Fleishman's Perceptual Motor (psychomotor) Abilities - Skill related

• Reaction time
• Response orientation
• Speed of movement
• Finger dexterity
• Manual dexterity
• Response integration

Define the term technique
Technique in general terms is a "way of doing". In the performance of a specific sports skill it is defined as the "the way in which that sports skill is performed".

State the relationship between ability, skill and technique
Skill = Ability + Technique

Discuss the relationship between a skilled and a novice performer

consistency

• Skilled: would be very consistent as they are an expert (autonomous) in their sport
• Novice: would have many errors and not yet be consistent as they are still in the learning (cognitive or associative) stage 

accuracy

Skilled: more likely to be accurate, for same reasons as above

• Novice: less accurate in their performance as they are less consistent and skilled 

control

• Skilled: will have more control in their movements as they have stored muscle memory from completing the action so many times
• Novice: will have less control, comes with lack of consistency and accuracy, as they have not had great time for practice 

learned

• Skilled: they will be knowledgeable on their sport and technique
• Novice: may need assistance in understanding correct technique 

efficiency

• Skilled: will be able to achieve desired goal much quicker than a novice player
• Novice: will take a long time to reach desired goal 

goal-directed

• Skilled: will know exactly what they want to produce and what steps are needed to get there
• Novice: may know what they want to achieve but not the steps to get there 

fluency

• Skilled: difficult skills will look effortless and smooth
• Novice: will look erratic and uncontrolled

FOLLOW UP QUESTIONS: (discuss with another pair)

1. Can you conclude that you learned how to juggle two tennis balls with your non-dominant hand? Why? or Why not?
2. If up until the 9- minute mark you only caught the ball twice, then you suddenly caught 6, does that mean you learned how to juggle? Why? / Why not?
3. What is learning?
4. What learner, task and environmental factors affected your performance and learning?

Information Processing

Describe a simple model of information processing 

In response to input stimuli, the performer perceives the stimulus, and recounts by executing an appropriate output, after their brain goes through the decision making process. 

Feedback is then often given, so that the response can be altered to be made better if necessary.

Example: A penalty kick is about to take place, the goalie observes the angle of the kicker (input), makes a decision on where to dive (decision making) and follows with a diving movement (output). Terminal feedback on the movement is applied for the next shot.

Describe Welford's model of information processing 

Outline the components associated with sensory output

The information is taken in through the senses prior to a decision being made in three main ways. These are:

• what we see (vision)
• what we hear (auditory)
• what we sense (proprioception)

Vision:

• seeing the ball or the opponent; for eg, picking up the flight of the shuttle cock coming over the net in badminton

Audition:

• hearing the call of a team-mate or the sound of the ball on the racket

Proprioception:

• Proprioceptors are located on the nerves, muscles, tendons, joints and inner ear, which provide intrinsic (internal) information about the movement and balance of the body during the performance. The three components of proprioception are: 

1. touch
2. equilibrium (balance) 
3. Kinaesthesis (the ability to feel movements of the limbs and body)

Touch- is our tactile sense, it detects pressure, pain, temperature. It's used in many sports. Example: The feel of the ball in the hands or the tense feel of the tennis racket in the hand as you hit a return

Exteroceptors: Exteroceptors provide information about the external environment, like touch, pressure, temperature, light, sound, taste, smell etc. Sometimes receptors sensing light, sound and smell, which provide information about the distant environment, have been called telereceptors.

Introceptors:
Pass information from within the body's internal organs such as the heart and lungs to the brain via the nervous system. This helps to regulate the various functions of the body and cater for the changing demands placed upon it. 

Kinaesthetic information or Proprioception (body awareness) - the inner sense within the muscles, tendons and joints, which gives automatic internal information about the position of joints and the tension in the muscles.

Proprioceptors: Proprioceptors provide information about the position and posture of our body in space. They sense stimuli from the muscles, tendons and the joints as well from the vestibular apparatus.

Equilibrium- the balance needed before hitting a serve or the balance used in the skillful performance of a gymnast on the balance beam.

Kinaesthesis - the inner sense within the muscles, tendons and joints, which gives automatic internal information about the position of joints and the tension in the muscles. A javelin thrower would know, without looking, that the arm is fully extended and that the elbow is 'locked' before he throws.   

 © Oxford University Press 2012 John Sproule 

PRACTICE